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**Trinitrotoluene and its applications **


 * Introduction **

Trinitrotoluene, which always refers to a more specific name, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, is a chemical compound with the formula C6H2(NO2)3CH3. The famous use for this yellow-colored solid is the useful explosive material with convenient properties. It's a very safety and effective bomb which could be the standard measure of strength of bomb or other explosives. TNT bomb could generate 4.2million J/kg, less than fat (38MJ/kg) and sugar (17MJ/kg). But it will explode instantly since it contains oxygen. In chemistry, it also used as a reagent in chemical process which could generate charge to move  .

**History **

The pioneer to prepare TNT is a German chemist Julius Wilbrand. The original application of TNT is a yellow dye. But after that, in a very long time, the potential of being an explosive was not discovered since it was so difficult to detonate and also less powerful than alternatives. TNT was so insensitive that it could be poured when liquid into shell cases without any. TNT was not considered as an explosive for the purposes of manufacture and storage until 1907, when the British started replacing lyddite with TNT. And now, the majority of TNT currently used by the US military is manufactured by Radford Army Ammunition Plant near Radford, Virginia.

**Preparation for Trinitrotoluene **

There are three steps to produce TNT in industry. First process is to obtain mono-nitro toluene or so called MNT. Here toluene is nitrated with a mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric. The second step is to separated the MNT and then nitrated to di- nitrotoluene or so called DNT. And for the final process, using an anhydrous mixture of nitric acid and oleum to nitrated the DNT into trinitrotoluene or so called TNT. In order to stabilize the crude TNT, there is a process named sulphitation. In this process, to remove less stable isomers of TNT and other undesired reaction products, the TNT is treated with aqueous sodum sulfite.

In the laboratory, TNT, which always refer to 2, 4, 6-trinitrotoluene, is produced by a two step process. The first step needs to maintain careful cold temperature. Use a nitrating mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids to nitrate toluene, to get a mixture of mono- and di- nitrotoluene isomers. The mixture compound are then separated and washed with dilute sodium bicarbonate to remove oxides of nitrogen. After that it got carefully nitrated with a mixture of fuming nitric acid and sulfuric acid. At the end of the nitration, after heated on a steam bath, the trinitrotoluene is separated. It was then washed with a dilute solution of sodium sulfite and then recrystallized from.

**TNT equivalent **

TNT equivalent is a method of quantifying the energy released in.

4.184 gigajoules = the ton of TNT, which is the approximately amount of energy released in the detonation of one ton of TNT. And the megaton is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 petajoules. The kiloton and megaton of TNT have been used to rate the energy output. It will be found in various nuclear weapon control treaties and could describe the destructiveness compared with ordinary explosives. Recently discovered found out that TNT is not the most energetic of conventional explosives. Dynamite has more energy density than TNT (approximately 7.5 MJ/kg, compared to 4.7 MJ/kg for TNT).

The energy of explosive is usually calculated by the thermodynamic work energy of. And upon that, TNT has been measured at 4686 J/g from large number of air blast experiments and theoretically calculated to be 4853 J/g. And also 2724 J/g was measured from pure heat output which is hardly use for explosive blast effect.

For examples, in Cold War with U.S.S.R, the United States developed hydrogen bombs which the theoretical yield is 25 megatons of TNT. And Soviet Union also developed Tsar Bomb which yield is 100Mt. These destructive potential of those bombs could be sensitive according to the conditions and environments, such as temperature and the nature of the target they are detonated against.

**Explosive character **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Although Dynamite is more powerful than TNT, there always is a misconception between them. TNT is a specific chemical compound and dynamite is an absorbent mixture. A high velocity initiator or efficient concussion could detonate TNT. About detonation, TNT decomposes as follows:

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">2 C7H5N3O6 → 3 N2 + 5 H2O + 7 CO + 7 C <span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt;">①

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">2 C7H5N3O6 → 3 N2 + 5 H2 + 12 CO + 2 C <span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt;">②

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The reaction has a high activation energy although it is an exothermic reaction. Because the generation of the carbon. TNT has an excess of carbon, so when mixed with compound which contains rich oxygen, it could yield much more energy than TNT.

====<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Before the more sensitive explosive RDX appear, which has an F of I of 80, TNT has been used to be the reference point for the figure of insensitivity. It has a range of exactly 100 on the F of I. ====

====<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">TNT is poisonous. Skin would be orange-colored when contact happened and cause skin irritation. It was first found in World War I, the munitions’ worker found out that their skin turned in to bright yellow-orange color when working with the chemical. It also called canary girls or canaries. ====

====<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">People exposed to TNT in a long period tend to get anemia or even lost liver functions. As the progress of finding the harm of the TNT moving on, blood and liver effects, also spleen enlargement and other harmful effects on the immune system have also been found in rats which suggests that ingested or breathed trinitrotoluene. Evidence has become accumulated that TNT also adversely affects male fertility or even a possible human carcinogen. As the TNT accumulated in human body, it produces red urine through the presence of breakdown products. Military testing grounds, waste water from munitions programs are contaminated with TNT. The subsurface waters from contamination of surface may be pink-colored since it contains. Such contamination, which is called pink water, is difficult to remedy. Even if it could be remedy clearly, it will cost a lot. Exudation of small molecule plasticizers such as TNT is a problem for munitions system which would degrade the properties. But it also bring a pollution into the environment because of the exudation of di- nitrotoluenes and other isomers of trinitrotoluene, especially in projectiles. Since it stored a number amount of TNT and at higher temperatures, exudation of impurities let the formation broke down. Migration of the exudates liquid in the screw thread could arouse detonations. ====

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Application **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">TNT is the most famous and commonly used explosives for military and also for industrial applications. Compared to the other more effective but more sensitive high explosives such as nitroglycerin, the risk of accidental detonation for TNT are reduced because of its insensitivity to shock and friction. The melting point of TNT is 80 °C (176 °F) which is far away from the temperature at which it will spontaneously detonate. So it could be poured into the solvent to mix with other explosives very safely. Although we know that blocks of TNT are available in various sizes such as 250 g, 500 g and 1000 g. But it is more commonly calculated in synergistic explosive combines with a variable percentage of TNT plus other ingredients.

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">The main explosive blends containing TNT introduced as follows:

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Amatol **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Amatol was named after a munitions factory which was a planned community built by the United States. Amatol is made from a mixture of TNT and ammonium nitrate. This highly explosive material was wildly used in World War I and World War II, especially in military regular weapons such as aircraft bombs, shells, depth charges and naval mines.

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Manufacture and use

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Amatol takes advantage of TNT and ammonium nitrate. Needless to say, TNT has high explosive velocity and good brisance, but it cost a lot to manufacture and the process is too complicated. Compared to TNT, ammonium nitrate has low detonation velocity and correspondingly low brisance. But on the other hand, it is very cheap and easy to manufacture. The most important advantage is that there are full of oxygen in ammonium nitrate which TNT is deficient in.

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">If only the amount of TNT in mixture did not below 60%, Amatol allowed existing supplies of TNT to be expanded, with reduction in the power of the final product.

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">It is easy to produce amatol, which is kind of a most important reason why it was popular during major conflicts. Heated TNT gently until it melts then adds the accurate weight ratio of powdered ammonium nitrate and mixed. Poured into empty bomb casings when the mixture is still in a molten state, and wait until it is cool and solidify.

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">According to the different mixture used, the color rang of amatol is from white to yellow and sometimes even pinkish brown. It is hygroscopic which remains soft for long period storage. To prevent moisture problems, amatol charges were covered with a thin layer of pure molten TNT. Since munitions charged with amatol were always used instantly after manufacture, Long term storage would not be an issue. Although Amatol is easily stored and insensitive, it still should not be stored in copper or brass made containers, it would form dangerous compounds.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ammonal **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Ammonal is an explosive consist of 58.6% ammonium nitrate, 21% aluminum powder, 18% TNT and 2.4% charcoal. Here ammonium nitrate play a role of an oxidizer and aluminum powder play a role of power enhancer to make Ammonal more sensitive to detonation. Ammonal was used to replace pure TNT since the ammonium nitrate and aluminum powder are both very cheap and easy to get. The detonation velocity of Ammonal is approximately 4400 meters per second (or 9842 miles per hour).

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Baratol **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Baratol is an explosive which is consisted of TNT, Barium nitrate and a small quantity of wax. Baratol was used to slow the detonated velocity in the explosive lenses of early atomic bombs. Those bombs detonated in 1945 at Trinity, the Soviet Joe 1 in 1949 and in India in 1972, used Baratol. Baratol has a detonation velocity of approximately 4900 meters per second.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Composition B **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Comp B is an explosive consisting of mixtures of RDX and TNT. The mainly use is to fill in artillery projectiles rocket, land mines, hand grenades, sticky bombs and other munitions. Before 1950s, Composition B was wildly used in United States and other western nations’ munitions. It was the standard explosive filler before less sensitive explosives appeared to replace its function in many weapons systems.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cyclotol **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Cycoltol is consisted of mixtures of RDX and TNT. Around 70% RDX and 30% TNT in Cyclotol related to the more common Composition B. Different Cyclotol has various composition of RDX from 65% to 80%. The military uses 77% RDX and 23% TNT for Cyclotol in war. Cyclotol is not as much used as other main explosive in the war. The important use for it is in some models of nuclear weapon. Such as B28 nuclear bomb, Python primary- W34, W28, W40 and W49 used Cyclotol as warhead.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ednatol **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Ednatol is consisted of mixtures of 58% ethylenediniramine and 42% TNT. It was first developed in USA in 1935. Because of its very fast detonation velocity, which approximately around 7400 meters per second, it was used as a replacement for Composition B in fragmentation bombs. Ednatol has the same function as Pentolite, it was used in rockets, grenades and high- explosive antitank shells. Stable, non- hygroscopic and could be stored for long periods are the advantage for Ednatol to use in military. It has no civilian application since its fast detonation velocity. It was very popular during the World War II.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hexanite **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">The most common Hexanite is consisted of mixture of 60% TNT and 40% hexanitrodiphenylamin. It was first developed for Kaiserliche Marine in German in the 20th century before the World War I. German used it to supply the munitions for the short of TNT. Hexanite has more power than TNT and typically used in underwater naval weapons warhead for G7a and G7e series torpedoes.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Minol **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">There are four different Minol formulas used as explosives for military. All percentages by weight show as: Minol-1: 48% TNT, 42% ammonium nitrate and 10% powdered aluminum. Minol-2: 40% TNT, 40% ammonium nitrate and 20% powdered aluminium.Minol-3: 42% TNT, 38% ammonium nitrate and 20% powdered aluminum. Minol-4: 40% TNT, 40 % ammonium nitrate & potassium nitrate (90/10) and 20% powdered aluminum. It was first developed by the Admiralty early in the World War II to augment supplies of TNT and RDX. The aluminum component in Minol prolongs the explosive pulse, which make it could be used in underwater naval weapons. The more destructive damage could be done by longer explosive pulse. And because of its high acceleration which may over 250gs, it takes a risk of detonation so Minol was requested not used in weapons fired from gun barrels. Since the 1950s, Minol has gradually be replaced by PBX composition due to their more stable characteristics.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Octol **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">There are two kinds of Octol, one is consisted of 70% HMX and 30% TNT and the other one is 75% HMX and 25% TNT. Considered that HMX has much higher detonation velocity than TNT and it formed the main part of the explosive blend, Octol has higher brisance could be. The advantage for Octol is that it could reduce the size and weight of the explosive which was very important factor for smart weapons such as guided missiles. It would give the target less opportunity to recognize and evade the attack. But it is very expensive and more complicated to manufacture than RDX based explosives such as Composition B and Cyclotol. So it was wildly used as warheads in guided missiles and subminitions.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Picratol **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Picratol is consisted of mixture of 52% Explosive D and 48% TNT. It has a detonation velocity of approximately 6972 meters per second. As the function of Ednatol, it has no civilian application. The main advantage of Picratol is that it is insensitive to shock so it is very useful in specific area such as the main explosive filling in amour piercing shells and aerial bombs.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Tetrytol **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Tetrytol is consisted of mixture of 70% Tetryl and 30% TNT. Since the main part is Tetryl so that the Tetrytol is so much more sensitive than TNT. It has a higher detonation velocity and more brisance for the main part of this explosive blend. Compared to pure TNT, Tetrytol could not store as long as TNT and also could not store well at the higher temperatures such as in desert or tropical environments. It was usually used in nature buster tubes for chemical weapons, blocks of demolition explosives and cast shaped charges.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Torpex **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Torpex is consisted of mixture of 42% RDX, 40%TNT and 18% powdered aluminum. It is a secondary explosive more powerful than pure TNT. In the World War II late in 1942, it was first used and the name is short for Torpedo Explosive. It was also specifically used in underwater munitions because of the aluminum component. It would prolong the explosive pulse for the Torpex to guarantee the destructive power. Before replaced by H6 and PBX compositions, Torpex was used in Upkeep, Tallboy, Grand Slam bombs and Operation Aphrodite drones which are both critical applications.

<span style="background-color: white; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Development

<span style="background-color: white; display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: left;">Torpex was first developed by Waltham Abbey, at the Royal Gunpoder Factory in the United Kingdom. It was considered as a military alternative to TNT. It was very stalbe and less sensitive than other explosives, but it was too expensive to manufacture for most of the military munitions. Aluminum powder was added to make up the lack of the oxygen for RDX and TNT. Beeswax was added too, to reduce sensitivity to shock and impact and later it was replaced by petroleum based product. ==== 1. (a) Pinnaduwage, L. A.; Yi, D.; Tian, F.; Thundat, T.; Lareau, R. 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